Urban+Landuse

= Residential Areas = = Explain the location of residential areas in relation to wealth, ethnicity and family status (stage in life cycle). =

Ethnicity

 * Covers any group characterised by race, religion, nationality and culture
 * Degree of segregation depends on the process of assimilation of new migrant to the host society


 * The Functions of Ethnic residential area:**
 * Defensive / Existence of territorial ‘heartland’ helps to reduce isolation and vulnerability of minority groups
 * Support functions / Ethnic enclaves serve as ‘port of entry’ for new migrants and a haven for long-term residents / Protects the places of worship and ethnic enterprise
 * Cultural Preservation / Helps to promote and preserve a distinctive culture heritage and maintain culture solidarity / Keeps marriage within community / Observation of religious creed and dietary laws
 * Attack Function / Serve as base for action, e.g. to gain representation within the institutional framework


 * Characteristics of Ethically Segregated Areas (ESA)**
 * Immigrants representing an increasingly larger share of the population
 * Schools in these areas have a more difficult time to provide essential training / Teaching the language of the country
 * Unemployment rates in these areas are considerably much higher than average, as is reliance on various social assistance measures
 * Women suffering from a variety of handicaps induced by difficult social and cultural circumstances to a general downward slide in the general appearance of the area
 * Social malaise from crime to substance abuse
 * Suffers from down-ward spiralling / Economic recession often hit the ESA’s particularly hard

= Examine patterns of urban poverty and deprivation (such as slums, squatter settlements, areas of low-cost housing and inner-city areas). =

**3** . **Historical factors**
 * Factors affecting location of urban poverty **
 * 1. Physical characteristics of the site and immediate environments **
 * High status housing tend to evolve at environmentally favourable locations, e.g. waterfront
 * Shanties found near less desirable areas, polluted river banks, marshes, etc
 * 2. Competition for location and space **
 * Housing market situation, accessibility and pattern of land value
 * Levels of income: determines ability to bid for choice locations
 * Historical process of growth (usually outwards) and decay (inner) in the city structure
 * Especially applicable to cities with long history of urbanisation
 * 4. Institutional factors **
 * Policies and legislation owhich determines access to affordable housing, subsidy, mortage etc
 * Local government can influence the quality of existing housing through renewal and upgrading plans

A zone of mixed, relatively high density land uses surrounding the central urban core. An area at or near the city centre with dilapidated housing, derelict land, and declining industry. The inner city is often home to those with low wages, living in multi-occupied housing. The area close to the centre of a city, usually of poor, old and decaying houses and other land uses. This is also the transition zone of the urban area.
 * The Inner City **
 * Definitions of the Inner City **


 * Characteristics of the Inner City **
 * Economy**
 * A declining economic base as businesses close or move out.
 * Trend associated with decentralisation of investment to specialised industrial estates and new towns.
 * Decline of traditional industries like ship building (affecting old industrial cities).
 * Lack of reinvestment because inhabitants lack relevant skills, limited space available and high cost.
 * Older commercial and industrial premises available at relatively low rents, convenient for ‘start-up’ businesses.
 * Above average unemployment rates


 * Form and structure**
 * A complex mix of well-established neighbourhood communities and areas of rapid change.
 * A broad diversity of dwelling types, generally at high densities and varying in age and quality.
 * Small pockets of wealthy enclaves and sites of renewal.
 * Outdated transport / access infrastructure and ageing industrial buildings, interspersed with modern premises.


 * Inhabitants**
 * Labour force lacks qualification and skills
 * Above average clustering of minority groups, urban poor and elderly.


 * Environment**
 * Noise and air pollution from traffic and old industrial setups.
 * ‘Visual’ pollution in the form of waste land, rubbish dumps, derelict buildings etc.


 * Areas of economic activities **
 * Explain the spatial pattern of economic activity, the zoning of urban and suburban functions and the internal structure of the central business district (CBD). **
 * Core of the CBD consists of: **
 * Groups of high rise office buildings
 * Financial district
 * Hotel conventional district
 * Retail section


 * Characteristics of Core: **
 * ** CHARACTERISTICS ** || ** DESCRIPTIONS ** ||
 * Intensive land use || Multi-storied buildings: highest retail productivity per unit area, characteristics by higher order functions ||
 * Extended vertical scale || Growth mainly vertical ||
 * Limited horizontal scale || Greatest horizontal dimension seldom exceed walking scale ||
 * Limited horizontal change || Gradual horizontal change, with slums and undesirables limited to a few blocks ||
 * Concentrated day time population || Location of highest concentration foot traffic; absence of permanent residential population ||
 * Focus of mass transit || Major mass transit interchange location for entire city ||
 * Centre of specialised functions || Extensive use of office space for executive and policy making functions: centre of specialised professional and business services. ||

Divided into number of districts:
 * Frame (Surrounding area): **
 * Municipal (public services)
 * Medical
 * Wholesaling and warehousing
 * Skid row*

A skid row functions as a haven for the homeless and social dropouts and as an area for adult entertainment. Also known as the 'zone of discard' Common functions include pawnshops, bars, low-grade cafes, cheap movie houses, repair shops, gun shops and low quality consumer mechanise.


 * Characteristics of Frame (surrounding area): **
 * ** CHARACTERISTICS ** || ** DESCRIPTIONS ** ||
 * Semi-intensive land use || Building height geared to walk up scale: site only partially built on ||
 * Prominent functional sub-region || Sub foci characterised mainly by wholesaling, warehousing, off street parking, automobile sales and services, multifamily dwellings, light manufacturing and institutional use ||
 * Extended horizontal scale || Most establishment have off street parking and docking facilities: movement between establishments are vehicular ||
 * Linked functional sub-regions || Important establishment linkages to the CBD (e.g. inter-city transportation terminals); and to outlying areas (wholesale distributions to suburban shopping. ||

The Changing CBD The definition of CBD has undergone many changes in the last few decades

(a) Changing economic structure (b) Deteriorating conditions of buildings (c) Outdated and inefficient street and utilities layout (d) Population shift (e) Rising cost and competition from new users (f) Increase in number of functions
 * Forces / Reasons for the change **
 * Some functions become obsolete e.g. traditional grocery stores, bakery etc
 * Some functions require more space e.g. hardware, cottage industry
 * Many 18th century buildings still stands in some cities. Some were given attention in terms of conservation efforts while others were only left to rot.
 * Many of the buildings were poorly constructed, result of urgent needs after the WW II.
 * Street layout and utilities system (sewerage, power and water) not designed with the modern city in mind.
 * Road development constrained by densely built-up area
 * There is reduced rate of rural migration due to an alternative growth pole
 * City will decline and deteriorate over time
 * Economic expansion and the modernisation of the economy shift the economic focus from farms, mines and ports to other functions such as finance and banking.
 * The emergence of high value, high turnover land users pushes out traditional occupants.
 * As more and more functions began to emerge, the CBD become too complex to be considered as a single entity. As a result, some form of fragmentation had to take place.

(a) Change in functions
 * Consequences of changes **
 * Certain traditional functions move out because of cost, leaving only the highest profit making functions in the city
 * Conversion of land use to modern functions
 * Exodus of low value land users, many with rich historical connections
 * Activities leaving the CBD: Retail, industrial, residential
 * Activities with increasing presence: Data and information handling
 * Financial establishment, public organisation and Corporate HQs

(b) Migration of town core (c) Modernisation of shopping functions (d) Transitional zone (e) Emergence of specialised areas (f) Urban Renewal
 * Zone of Expansion – where CBD functions are spreading.
 * Old shop houses occupied by service functions, esp. solicitors, employment agencies etc where core location may be too costly
 * Zone of Discard – abandoned areas
 * Vacant lots, deterioration of building, loss of employment, tax base (needed for public utilities)
 * Covered shopping precincts
 * Redesign streets
 * Segregate pedestrian and vehicle flow
 * Commercial activities overflowed from the CBD
 * Parts adjacent to the high status area (which model) attracts hotels, speciality shops, offices
 * Lower status area attracts bars and discount stalls
 * Older small scale works and warehouse premises characterised by frequent change of use, where firms start out and move on once they make profit.
 * A necessity resulting from increase in the range of functions
 * Such areas can be subjected to fluctuations due to economic and social changes.
 * E.g. Singapore’s Queenstreet, London’s Soho
 * Reversal in decentralisation policy (Re-urbanisation)
 * Inner area revitalised and derelict industrial sites redeveloped into Special Enterprise Zone or leisure and retailing hubs
 * Intermix of residential, office, workshops and conference and exhibition facilities.
 * E.g. Renewal of London Docklands, Clark Quay and Singapore River

= Examine the causes and effects of the movement of retailing, service and manufacturing activities to new locations, including brownfield sites. =

Retailing changes since 1970 (in many MEDCs) have initially involved the decentralization of food shops, followed by DIY and furniture in the 1980s and the development of large out-of-town regional shopping centres. Decentralization has been a response to rising CBD land values and greater mobility of the population. This has resulted in the decline of the CBD and, in the 1990s, its subsequent revival. This has been achieved through the development of new large-scale retailing centres in the CBD or near its edge. Changes in retailing have also involved convenience stores in the outer urban area. This zone has witnessed the closure of many neighbourhood shops and the opening of chain convenience ‘metro’ stores often attached to petrol stations.
 * Retail **

**Manufacturing-** Industrial zones in the city Manufacturing can be found near the central zones due to skilled labour •specialised services in the CBD •tap the market of the densely populated city Characteristics of manufacturing in the city 1. Comparatively large size 2. Time or service factor unimportant 3. Large ground area per person required 4. Nuisance features (odours, noise, fire hazard etc.) 5. Specialised buildings required 6. Serious problem of waste disposal 7. Large quantities of fuel and / or water required
 * Small / old establishment Establishments found in the city are usually as old as the city, and not of substantial size due in terms of physical space or capital assets.
 * Flatted factories Some factories are located at the higher floors of buildings away from the sight of people.
 * Low grade sites Some establishments are located in the inner city and slums because of accessibility.
 * Light industries Establishments are mostly light industries that are non-polluting,
 * Abandon central location

|| Cling to central location 1. Time or service factor as important element 2. Specialised, highly skilled work 3. Small size 4. Obsolete buildings suitable 5. Close contact with market required 6. Style factor important 7. Established transport network (rail,ship) 8. Inertia || Congestion of city, leading to overcrowding and sky rocketing rents and forced industries with low returns per unit area to move out. Their places are occupied by services that offer a much higher return. (a) Along transport and communication lines Certain industries are attracted to transport links because
 * They consume a large amount of bulky raw materials
 * They create nuisance and therefore have to keep away from residential and commercial zones

(b) Suburbs Growth of suburban industrial centres due to
 * Cheaper sites
 * Improvement in transport
 * Use of electricity as fuel, which is very easy to transport
 * Growth of sub urban population provides the labour
 * More space

(c) Industrial complexes of high technology firms. These are extensive complexes where there are both research and development and manufacturing which are linked together. Example: Silicon Valley