Oceans+and+Coast+-+Resource

= Identify the biotic and abiotic resources of continental shelves, oceans and ocean floor deposits. =

Biotic resources The word fisheries refers to all of the fishing activities in the ocean, whether they are to obtain fish for the commercial fishing industry, for recreation or to obtain ornamental fish or fish oil. Fishing activities resulting in fish not used for consumption are called industrial fisheries. Fisheries are usually designated to certain ecoregions like the salmon fishery in Alaska, the Eastern Pacific tuna fishery or the Lofoten island cod fishery. Due to the relative abundance of fish on the continental shelf, fisheries are usually marine and not freshwater.

Although a world total of 86 million tons of fish were captured in 2000, China's fisheries were the most productive, capturing a whopping one third of the total. Other countries producing the most fish were Peru, Japan, the United States, Chile, Indonesia, Russia, India, Thailand, Norway and Iceland- with Peru being the most and Iceland being the least. The number of fish caught varies with the years, but appears to have leveled off at around 88 million tons per year possibly due to overfishing, economics and management practices.

Fish are caught in a variety of ways, including one-man casting nets, huge trawlers, seining, drift-netting, hand-lining, long-lining, gillnetting and diving. The most common species making up the global fisheries are herring, cod, anchovy, flounder, tuna, shrimp, mullet, squid, crab, salmon, lobster, scallops and oyster. Mollusks and crustaceans are also widely sought. The fish that are caught are not always used for food. In fact, about 40% of fish are used for other purposes such as fishmeal to feed fish grown in captivity. For example cod, is used for consumption, but is also frozen for later use. Atlantic herring is used for canning, fishmeal and fish oil. The Atlantic menhaden is used for fishmeal and fish oil and Alaska pollock is consumed, but also used for fish paste to simulate crab. The Pacific cod has recently been used as a substitute for Atlantic cod which has been overfished.

Abiotic Resource Tourism Tourism is the fastest growing division of the world economy and is responsible for more than 200 million jobs all over the world. In the US alone, tourism resulted in an economic gain of 478 billion dollars. With 700 million people traveling to another country in the year 2000, tourism is in the top five economic contributors to 83% of all countries and the most important economy for 38% of countries. The tourism industry is based on natural resources present in each country and usually negatively affect ecosystems because it is often left unmanaged. However, sustainable tourism can actually promote conservation of the environment.

The negative effects of tourism originate from the development of coastal habitats and the annihilation of entire ecosystems like mangroves, coral reefs, wetlands and estuaries. Garbage and sewage generated by visitors can add to the already existing solid waste and garbage disposal issues present in many communities. Often visitors produce more waste than locals, and much of it ends up as untreated sewage dumped in the ocean. The ecosystem must cope with eutrophication, or the loss of oxygen in the water due to excessive algal bloom, as well as disease epidemics. Sewage can be used as reclaimed water to treat lawns so that fertilizers and pesticides do not seep into the ocean.

Other problems with tourism include the overexploitation of local seafood, the destruction of local habitats through careless scuba diving or snorkeling and the dropping of anchors on underwater features. Ecotourism and cultural tourism are a new trend that favors low impact tourism and fosters a respect for local cultures and ecosystems.

Mining Humans began to mine the ocean floor for diamonds, gold, silver, metal ores like manganese nodules and gravel mines in the 1950's when the company Tidal Diamonds was established by Sam Collins. Diamonds are found in greater number and quality in the ocean than on land, but are much harder to mine. When diamonds are mined, the ocean floor is dredged to bring it up to the boat and sift through the sediment for valuable gems. The process is difficult as sediment is not easy to bring up to the surface, but will probably become a huge industry once technology evolves to solve the logistical problem.

Metal compounds, gravels, sands and gas hydrates are also mined in the ocean. Mining of manganese nodules containing nickel, copper and cobalt began in the 1960's and soon after it was discovered that Papua New Guinea was one of the few places where nodules were located in shallow waters rather than deep waters. Although manganese nodules could be found in shallow waters in significant quantities, the expense of bringing the ore up to the surface proved to be expensive. Sands and gravels are often mined for in the United States and are used to protect beaches and reduce the effects of erosion.

Mining the ocean can be devastating to the natural ecosystems. Dredging of any kind pulls up the ocean floor resulting in widespread destruction of marine animal habitats, as well as wiping out vast numbers of fishes and invertebrates. When the ocean floor is mined, a cloud of sediment rises up in the water, interfering with photosynthetic processes of phytoplankton and other marine life, in addition to introducing previously benign heavy metals into the food chain. As minerals found on land are exploited and used up, mining of the ocean floor will increase.

= Examine the spatial and temporal consequences of overfishing. = Environmental Consequences Reduced harvests of the targeted fish; excessive unintentional harvest of non-targeted, undersized or protected species Elimination of the largest and oldest individuals from a population or stock, eventually lead to a decline in stocks.

By-catch comprises all of the animals that are caught but not wanted or used, or are required to be discarded by management regulation. It may include specially protected species such as marine mammals or endangered species, juvenile individuals too small to be marketed, or other species of fish without commercial or recreational value to the fisher. The unwanted species are usually discarded, often dead, either at sea or on shore.

When the harvest plateaued, production was maintained by changes in species composition and by "fishing down the food chain." Top predatory species tend to be fished for first. Once depleted, fishing moves down the food chain and can simplify the marine ecosystem.

Overfishing can cause changes in marine food webs, adversely affecting other species like sea lions and seals which feeds on pollock, cod, and mackerel

When plant-eating fish are removed from coral reef ecosystems, grazing is reduced, allowing the algae that coexist with corals to flourish and potentially take over, especially if the water contains high levels of nitrogen. Because they often reduce light that enters the water, these algae contribute to the loss of corals, which depend upon light.

Economic Costs If fishery resources were sustainably managed, total harvests could rise an additional 10 million metric tons, adding $16 billion to worldwide gross revenues annually.

Global fishing fleet was operating at an annual deficit because world fisheries harvests grew at only about half the rate as the fleets, causing overcapacity in the world's fishing fleet.

Overcapacity in fisheries in which anyone can participate often leads to "derby" fishing in which all the fishers attempt to catch as much as they can as quickly as they can before the quota is reached. This often creates a temporary market glut and lowers prices for fishers while creating longer-term supply problems for buyers. It also leads to overcapacity in the processing sector and reduces economic benefits to consumers.

Reduced employment in fisheries and processing plants, and corresponding losses to fishery-dependent communities.

As stocks become overfished, management regulations generally become increasingly complex with greater need for enforcement, thus increasing costs to the public sector to manage these dwindling resources.

Subsidies that reduce fixed and variable costs or increase revenues distort trade and undermine competition in global seafood markets. Because of subsidies, the level of production is higher, resulting in decreases in prices.

As a species becomes overfished, reduction in supplies can eventually lead to higher prices. The costs of reducing overcapacity, if borne by the public through publicly funded vessel buyback programs, can be substantial as well.

http://ocean.nationalgeographic.com/ocean/critical-issues-overfishing/

= Evaluate a case study of a conservation policy implemented to provide sustainable fish yields.-The common fisheries policy (CFP) =

Management of fisheries in the EU Fish move across borders and seas, and fishing fleets have done the same for centuries. As the activities of each fishing fleet affect the opportunities of other fleets, the EU countries have decided to manage their fisheries in collaboration, through the common fisheries policy (CFP). This policy brings together a range of measures designed to achieve a thriving and sustainable European fishing industry.

The most important areas of action of the common fisheries policy are: •Rules to ensure Europe's fisheries are sustainable and do not damage the marine environment •Providing national authorities with the tools to enforce these rules and punish offenders •Monitoring the size of the European fishing fleet and preventing it from expanding further •Providing funding and technical support for initiatives that can make the industry more sustainable Negotiating on behalf of EU countries in international fisheries organisations and with non-EU countries around the world (helping producers, processors and distributors get a fair price for their produce and ensuring consumers can trust the seafood they eat •Supporting the development of a dynamic EU aquaculture sector (fish, seafood and algae farms) (aquaculture) •Funding scientific research and data collection, to ensure a sound basis for policy and decision making

Evaluate- Arguments about the CFP For •Fisheries are a natural and mobile resource and are thus, by nature, common property. •The CFP protects the environment and improves fish stocks by placing limits on how many fish can be caught. •The restructuring of the fishing industry in the EU has ensured fairer prices for efficient European fishermen.

Against •The willingness of national administrations to enforce the policy varies widely making it an inconsistent and ineffective policy. •The damage to the environment has been increased rather than decreased due to CFP measures, which waste natural resources. •Through the practice of dumping catches that do not conform to the TAC species quotas, fish stocks have continued to decrease.

= Describe the sources and distribution of pollution in the oceans. =

Types of Ocean Pollution Ocean pollution leads to beach closings, contaminated seafood, and of course the destruction of marine ecosystems and wildlife. There are plenty of reasons to care about ocean pollution, but without understanding where it’s all coming from, solutions to water pollution will be hard to find.

Oil Spills Tanker oil spills and oil rig blowouts are perhaps two of the most well known sources of ocean pollution and large oil spills are certainly well represented in the media. However, it is important to keep in mind that over 80% of ocean pollution actually comes from land-based sources (NOAA), and of the oil that enters the ocean only 14% comes from tanker accidents and offshore oil extraction (UNEP). Despite contributing a small percentage of the overall pollution entering the ocean, oil spills can have catastrophic effects on seabirds, marine mammals, fish, and local economies.

Runoff According to NOAA the largest source of ocean pollution is nonpoint source pollution – essentially runoff, or waste flowing from land into the sea. Pollutants in runoff can include oil from cars, fertilizers from lawns, untreated sewage discharged into streams, or toxins that escape into the air during manufacturing processes. According to the WWF on its page “Problems: Ocean Pollution”, almost every marine organism – no matter its size – is contaminated with man-made chemicals. Further, nutrients found in sewage discharge and fertilizers can cause algal blooms in the ocean that deplete the water’s dissolved oxygen leading to the death of other marine life. The impact of runoff is one reason deforestation has a large impact on ocean health.

Plastics Another land-based pollutant entering the ocean includes plastics. According to The Economist in its article “A New Year’s wish for less trash” (Dec 2010)the Great Pacific Garbage Patch could be twice the size of the continental United States and further ‘trash vortices’ have been discovered in the South Pacific, North and South Atlantic, and Indian Ocean. The Economist quotes the charity Science and Techonology against Ocean Plastics (STOP) assaying large areas of the ocean contain more plastic than plankton. Plastic bags are known to kill sea turtles mistaking the bags for food. Meanwhile, small plastic bits floating in the water can attract chemicals such as PCBs and DDT, these bits may be eaten by fish allowing the chemicals to work their way up the food chain.

Carbon Emissions Ocean acidification is perhaps the form of ocean pollution least well-known among the general public. Amidst all the arguing over global warming, many have overlooked the effects increased carbon emissions have on marine life. Unrelated to climate change, it is unarguably true that carbon emissions have increased over the past century. This increase in carbon has led to chemical changes in the ocean which has in turn affected marine life. Corals and other creatures reliant on carbonate have found it difficult to create the structures they need to survive. Increased carbon emissions have also been linked to increased coral bleaching – which can often mean coral death.

Sources FAQ. Global Marine Oil Pollution Information Gateway. UNEP. 6 Jan 2011. < http://oils.gpa.unep.org/>. Most Ocean Pollution Begins on Land”. National Ocean Service. Dec 2008. NOAA. 6 Jan 2011. < http://oceanservice.noaa.gov>.

= = = Discuss the implications of the pollution of oceans by the disposal of radioactive material, oil and chemical waste. =

Effects of the Oil Spill on Local and National Economies How did the BP Oil Spill affect the local economy? Many businesses were finally reaching pre-Katrina sales and revenue levels before the oil spill but those goals have been pushed further away. In a general survey conducted by the GNO Inc. only four percent of companies were worried about physical damage to their business, but 24% and 26% of companies felt that their actual business would be interrupted or outside interest in their business would be interrupted. Also, over half of the participants in the survey said they would need assistance in regaining revenue and business lost during the time of recovery from the oil spill. Damages in different areas will likely be suffered by local communities for years.

Some General Concerns for Local Economies •Estimates that over 250000 jobs in fishing, tourism and energy industries will be lost •Fishing industries are concerned with the populations ideas that seafood from the area will be affected resulting in a decrease of buying from the gulf regions •Tourism industries are worried about the effects on the local environments such as the barrier islands and the marshes that will lead to greatly decreased tourism •Gulf fishing and tourism industries have produced an average annual income of $3.5-$4.5 billion a year for the past few years •After the spill the annual income was decreased dramatically◦This is due to the contamination of the seawater and the resulting death of marine life •The gulf’s seafood industry is considered “dead” because people are worried about consuming contaminated food from the region

What are the effects on Specific Industries? Fishing •Louisiana’s Fishing Industry is at risk – because of the spill fisherman cannot access key fishing areas •The National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has banned fishing in 4.5% of the Gulf’s federal waters •The threat is increased if it reaches waterways where marine life hatches and develops – this could affect the industry in the short- as well as long-term •The fishing industry’s retail value of catches is over $400 million per year and the industry is expected to experience great losses over the next few years due to the oil spill •The gulf produces 73% of the nation’s domestically produced shrimp and 59% of its domestically produced oysters •The price for these goods increased 10-20% in the first few months of the spill

Tourism •Many annual tourists to the Gulf regions have cancelled their vacation because “the sea hasn’t been cleaned up and the beaches are no longer safe” – they believe •The hotels in coastal cities have not received bookings since April 2010 •It may take years to recover from this deficit •Winds have moved the spill west which keeps it from key tourist areas in Florida, Alabama and Mississippi – but people are still hesitant to book vacations in those areas because of the threat

Shipping •Ports and shipping lanes have not been greatly affected – however the oil has not reached them •If the oil were to reach these big hipping lanes and ports they may shut down, especially the port in New Orleans

Energy •There should be minimal effect on energy because only 2 of 4000 oil and natural gas producers have had to stop production

Commercial Real Estate •Fewer tourists are going to Gulf areas (Weiss)

Job Creation •May partly compensate for the spill-related job losses •Jobs were created for cleanup and ontainment •After the initial surge in clean-up jobs there will be few more and the pay would likely be lower than what previously employed people were paid (CBS) •Many jobs for clean-up are going to out-of-state boat owners

Why has the Oil Spill affected local markets and not national ones? •Tourism Spending is moving elsewhere in the United States •Hotel rooms are going unused by tourists – however this allows clean-up crews to take advantage of unoccupied rooms •Gulf fishermen have been damaged because of unusable fishing waters◦This is not seen nationally because commercial fishing from the coast is only a fraction of the US Economy •Ten percent of the Gulf region’s economy comes from its energy industry – however this is not vital to the nation’s energy •Deepwater drilling may become too expensive for the oil companies and they may relocate to areas abroad which would hurt communities in Texas and Louisiana but not nationally •Consumers in gulf areas will spend less money because the neighbors who’s businesses they used to support have gone under and they don’t want to pay “outsiders”

How did the BP Oil Spill affect the global economy? •Many financial experts estimate that the fuel prices will increase after winter •However, there will be no major effect on national economy •The biggest impact will be a negative impact on the local economy – but that is only 1% of national GDP •The oil spill will result in a negative consumer confidence in the market – due to lower demand businesses will have to decrease the selling price of goods

What the government is doing to help local businesses affected by the oil spill •Businesses can apply for low interest disaster loans for up to $2 million in disaster loans •This can be used by businesses to pay obligations and cover expenses until they can resume normal operations

http://www.unc.edu/~asalley/GEOG284/effects.html