Oceans+Introduction

= Morphology of oceans = = Describe the main features of oceanic crust and ocean floor morphology. =

The three major ocean basins are the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans. These lie over oceanic crust and have an average depth of about 3800 meters. The Atlantic Ocean is the youngest of the three and is dominated by a central oceanic ridge and by abyssal plains of fine sediment. It has grown during the past 200 million years at the expense of the Pacific Ocean. The ocean province ranges from shallow coastal areas to the deepest ocean environments. Many of the ocean features have been named and the particular provinces described. The major features are discussed in the following sections.
 * Seafloor Features**

The oceanic ridge system is the most pronounced tectonic feature on Earth. The combined ridges are more than 60,000 km in length, with an area of 23% of the earth's surface, almost equal to the total area of the continents. These ridges extend as an almost continuous feature around the globe in the form of spectacular mountain ranges of volcanic basalts. The ridges are arched up and broken by numerous fault blocks to form linear hills and valleys. A prominent rift valley marks the crest of the ridge throughout most of its length. The general character of the ridge is a function of the rate of plate separation. A slow rate of spreading produces a higher and more rugged oceanic ridge than when the spreading rates are more rapid. Rift valleys are also more prominent on ridges between slow moving plates.
 * (Mid) Ocean Ridges**

The rift valley along the center of the rise is a zone of shallow earthquakes. The system is not restricted to the oceans -- it emerges in continental areas in Africa, California, and in Iceland. Numerous open fissures have been observed and mapped in the rift valleys, which is evidence that the crust is being pulled apart along the ridge. The eruption of lava from these fractures parallels the rift valley and creates long narrow ridges.

The oceanic ridge is cut by faults __normal__ to the ridge. Although these are __strike-slip faults,__ vertical displacement may form abrupt cliffs that can be traced for many kilometers. Horizontal movement on these transform faults is on the order of 1-2 cm/yr and the faults are marked by earthquake activity and vulcanism. The magnitude of the system and its nature indicates that it is related to major events and sources of energy in the Earth's interior.

The abyssal hills have relatively low relief as they rise only 75 to 900 meters above the ocean floor. Abyssal hills were formed as oceanic ridge. As the crust moves away from the spreading center, it cools and sinks to a lower depth. The mountainous terrain of the oceanic ridge is maintained, becoming low-lying abyssal hills at depths of more than 6,000 meters. The hills are usually covered with a blanket of unconsolidated pelagic sediments deposited with reasonable uniformity which gradually modifies and smoothes the features but do not change the original volcanic ocean floor topography that formed at the ridge. A flat featureless surface known as an abyssal plain occurs when the hilly sea floor has been covered by a thick fill of sediments, which were deposited by turbidity currents. These river-like flows of a sediment water mix are carried along the sea floor. They receive sediments from continental margin submarine canyons which act as conduits for turbidity current transport. The original irregular surface of a volcanic province remains under the turbidite fill. These plains, which may slope less than 1:8000, are found adjacent to land masses -- extending from the continental rise to the abyssal hills. On prominences that rise above the plain, only sediments settling in the water column (pelagic deep-sea sediments) occur. On the surface of the plain, the pelagic sediments are interbedded with a dominating sequence of sands, silts, and clays of terrigenous origin that can be identified as turbidites by displaced benthic fauna and sediment patterns characteristic of turbidites.
 * Abyssal Hills and Abyssal Plains**

Volcanic cones reaching the ocean surface form volcanic islands. Subsidence of a volcanic island with growth of coral keeping pace as it subsides will result in the formation of an atoll. Drowning of ancient volcanic islands by isostatic adjustment is shown by the coral atoll deposits drilled in the Pacific. More than 1400 meters of shallow water carbonates -- deposited in less than 100 meters water depth -- have been recovered from Bikini Atoll. Guyots and seamounts are geomorphic forms developed from submarine volcanoes. Seamounts and guyots are isolated, but they do lie in chains or provinces of volcanic activity. They are found in all oceans, but more have been recorded in the Pacific Ocean. The distribution that has been mapped may represent a small percent of the total number since they are only noted where crossed during bathymetric profiling. The seamount is a relatively isolated elevation of the seafloor of more than 1000 meters height, with a small rounded top -- a volcano that did not reach the sea surface. Guyots are drowned volcanic islands that did not become coral atolls. They were planed flat by wave action when at shallow depths, after which subsidence occurred so that they are like seamounts but with a flattened top that lie more than 200 meters below the surface. Although some coral rubble may be found on guyots, they are abrasional platforms that have subsided as a result of isostatic adjustment, with some contributing effect from sea level change.
 * Volcanic Islands, Seamounts, Guyots, Atolls**

A subduction zone, where two lithosphere plates converge and one slab of plunges into the mantle, is expressed topographically by a trench. Deep-sea trenches are long, narrow depressions in the ocean floor with depths greater than 6000 meters and they can reach 11,000 meters in depth. Trenches are found adjacent to land areas and associated with island arcs worldwide, but they are more numerous in the Pacific Ocean. The trench is usually asymmetric, with the steep side toward the adjacent land mass. Where a trench occurs off continental margins, the turbidites from the slope are trapped, forming a hadal plain on the floor of the trench.
 * Deep** **Sea** **Trenches**

The continental shelf is an undersea extension of a continent which can stretch for many kilometres out to sea in some cases. Many nations have asserted mineral and land rights to their associated continental shelves, since this region of the ocean is rich in natural resources such as marine life. Minerals on the continental shelf are also significantly easier to extract than minerals on the floor of the ocean, since the continental shelf is relatively shallow by comparison. By convention, many countries defend their continental shelves as territorial waters, since they are concerned about the exploitation of their natural resources.
 * Continental Shelf**

There are several parts to the continental shelf. The first part is the shelf itself, which starts below the shoreline of a continent. The shelf slopes gently as it stretches towards the deeper part of the ocean, until it reaches a certain point and drops off sharply, causing the waters above to rapidly become much deeper. This drop is called the continental break, and it occurs uniformly at around 460 feet (140 meters) of depth. It has been theorized that the continental break may mark the former sea level of the world's oceans.

After the continental break, the continental shelf takes a sharp downward turn, creating a geological feature called the continental slope. This feature transitions into the continental rise, a deposit of sediments which forms as a result of river and stream run off from the neighboring continent. Beyond the continental rise, one finds the ocean floor, along with a host of fascinating plant and animal life which remains largely unexplored due to the inaccessibility of the ocean floor.

In some instances, the continental shelf is very short, as is the case in subduction zones where one tectonic plate is being sucked below another. A well known example of a subduction zone can be found in the waters off the coast of Chile. In other cases, the continental shelf stretches for many miles out to sea. The feature is often visible from overhead, if the viewer looks for a marked change in the color of the water which reflects a sudden change in depth.

= Explain the occurrence of oceanic volcanic features, trenches, transform faults, mid-ocean ridges and rifts in terms of plate margins. =

**Trenches and Ridges**

Deep sea trenches form where the plates sinks back into the core The Peru-Chile Trench The west margin of the South American continent where the oceanic Nazca Plate is pushed toward and beneath the continental portion of the South American Plate Destructive / Convergent plate margins Lithospheric plates converge and collide. Forms subduction zones – sea trenches Crust convert back to magma Associated with mountain building or orogenesis

Mid Ocean ridges form where two plates move apart The Mid-Atlantic Ridge Constructive / Divergent Plate Margins Lithospheric plates move away from each other. New crust created - 2 cm of crust created a year. Atlantic Ocean did not exist some 150 million years ago.